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Ailmemts & Remedies Pediatric

Pyloric stenosis

Alternative Name : Infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis

Definition:
Pyloric stenosis is a condition that causes severe vomiting in the first few months of life. There is narrowing (stenosis) of the opening from the stomach to the intestines, due to enlargement (hypertrophy) of the muscle surrounding this opening (the pylorus, meaning “gate”), which spasms when the stomach empties. It is uncertain whether there is a real congenital narrowing or whether there is a functional hypertrophy of the muscle which develops in the first few weeks of life. Babies with this condition may seem to always be hungry
click to see the pictures……..(01).…..…(1)..….…(2).……..(3)....……
Pyloric stenosis also occurs in adults where the cause is usually a narrowed pylorus due to scarring from chronic peptic ulceration. This is a different condition from the infantile form.

Prompt treatment of pyloric stenosis is important for preventing complications. Pyloric stenosis can be corrected with surgery.

Males are more commonly affected than females, with firstborn males affected about four times as often, and there is a genetic predisposition for the disease. It is commonly associated with people of Jewish ancestry, and has multifactorial inheritance patterns. Pyloric stenosis is more common in Caucasians than Hispanics, Blacks, or Asians. The incidence is 2.4 per 1000 live births in Caucasians , 1.8 in Hispanics, 0.7 in Blacks, and 0.6 in Asians. It is also less common amongst children of mixed race parents.  Caucasian babies with blood type B or O are more likely than other types to be affected

Symptoms:
Signs of pyloric stenosis usually appear within three to five weeks after birth. Pyloric stenosis is rare in babies older than age 3 months.

Signs and symptoms are:
*Frequent projectile vomiting. Pyloric stenosis often causes projectile vomiting — the forceful ejection of milk or formula up to several feet away — within 30 minutes after your baby eats. Vomiting may be mild at first and gradually become more severe. The vomit may sometimes contain blood.

*Persistent hunger. Babies who have pyloric stenosis often want to eat soon after vomiting.

*Stomach contractions. You may notice wave-like contractions that move across your baby’s upper abdomen (peristalsis) soon after feeding but before vomiting. This is caused by stomach muscles trying to force food past the outlet of the pylorus.

*Dehydration. Your baby may cry without tears or become lethargic. You may find yourself changing fewer wet diapers or diapers that aren’t as wet as you expect.

*Changes in bowel movements. Since pyloric stenosis prevents food from reaching the intestines, babies with this condition may be constipated.

*Weight problems. Pyloric stenosis can prevent a baby from gaining weight, and can sometimes even cause weight loss.

*Less active or seems unusually irritable

*Urinating much less frequently or is having noticeably fewer bowel movements

Causes:
The cause of the thickening is unknown, although genetic factors may play a role. Children of parents who had pyloric stenosis are more likely to have this problem.

Normally, food passes easily from the stomach into the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine) through a valve called the pylorus. In pyloric stenosis, the muscles of the pylorus are thickened. This thickening prevents the stomach from emptying into the small intestine.

Risk Factors:
Risk factors for pyloric stenosis include:

*Sex. Pyloric stenosis occurs more often in males than in females.

*Birth order. About one-third of babies affected by pyloric stenosis are firstborns.

*Family history. More than 1 in 10 babies with pyloric stenosis has a family member who had the disorder.

*Early antibiotic use. Babies given certain antibiotics, such as erythromycin, in the first weeks of life for whooping cough (pertussis) have an increased risk of pyloric stenosis. In addition, babies born to mothers who were given certain antibiotics in late pregnancy also may have an increased risk of pyloric stenosis.

Complications:
Pyloric stenosis can lead to:

*An electrolyte imbalance. Electrolytes are minerals, such as chloride and potassium, that circulate in the body’s fluids to help regulate many vital functions, such as heartbeat. When a baby vomits every time he or she eats, dehydration and an imbalance of electrolytes eventually occurs

*Stomach irritation. Repeated vomiting can irritate your baby’s stomach. This irritation may even cause mild bleeding.

*Jaundice. Rarely, infants who have pyloric stenosis develop jaundice — a yellowish discoloration of the skin and eyes caused by a buildup of a substance secreted by the liver called bilirubin.

Diagnosis:
Diagnosis is via a careful history and physical examination, often supplemented by radiographic studies. There should be suspicion for pyloric stenosis in any young infant with severe vomiting. On exam, palpation of the abdomen may reveal a mass in the epigastrium. This mass, which consists of the enlarged pylorus, is referred to as the ‘olive,’ and is sometimes evident after the infant is given formula to drink. It is an elusive diagnostic skill requiring much patience and experience. There are often palpable (or even visible) peristaltic waves due to the stomach trying to force its contents past the narrowed pyloric outlet.

At this point, most cases of pyloric stenosis are diagnosed/confirmed with ultrasound, if available, showing the thickened pylorus. Although somewhat less useful, an upper GI series (x-rays taken after the baby drinks a special contrast agent) can be diagnostic by showing the narrowed pyloric outlet filled with a thin stream of contrast material; a “string sign” or the “railroad track sign”. For either type of study, there are specific measurement criteria used to identify the abnormal results. Plain x-rays of the abdomen are not useful, except when needed to rule out other problems.

Blood tests will reveal hypokalemic, hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis due to loss of gastric acid (which contain hydrochloric acid and potassium) via persistent vomiting; these findings can be seen with severe vomiting from any cause. The potassium is decreased further by the body’s release of aldosterone, in an attempt to compensate for the hypovolaemia due to the severe vomiting.

Pathophysiology
The gastric outlet obstruction due to the hypertrophic pylorus impairs emptying of gastric contents into the duodenum. As a consequence, all ingested food and gastric secretions can only exit via vomiting, which can be of a projectile nature. The vomited material does not contain bile because the pyloric obstruction prevents entry of duodenal contents (containing bile) into the stomach.

This results in loss of gastric acid (hydrochloric acid). The chloride loss results in hypochloremia which impairs the kidney’s ability to excrete bicarbonate. This is the significant factor that prevents correction of the alkalosis.

A secondary hyperaldosteronism develops due to the hypovolemia. The high aldosterone levels causes the kidneys to:

*avidly retain Na+ (to correct the intravascular volume depletion)

*excrete increased amounts of K+ into the urine (resulting in hypokalaemia).

The body’s compensatory response to the metabolic alkalosis is hypoventilation resulting in an elevated arterial pCO2.=[pp\][[\=0808i[po9il;

Treatment:
Infantile pyloric stenosis is typically managed with surgery; very few cases are mild enough to be treated medically.

Prior to surgery and surgery alternatives:
The danger of pyloric stenosis comes from the dehydration and electrolyte disturbance rather than the underlying problem itself. Therefore, the baby must be initially stabilized by correcting the dehydration and hypochloremic alkalosis with IV fluids. This can usually be accomplished in about 24–48 hours.

Intravenous and oral atropine may be used to treat pyloric stenosis. It has a success rate of 85-89% compared to nearly 100% for pyloromyotomy, however it requires prolonged hospitalization, skilled nursing and careful follow up during treatment. It might be an alternative to surgery in children who have contraindications for anesthesia or surgery.

Surgery
The definitive treatment of pyloric stenosis is with surgical pyloromyotomy known as Ramstedt’s procedure (dividing the muscle of the pylorus to open up the gastric outlet). This is a relatively straightforward surgery that can possibly be done through a single incision (usually 3–4 cm long) or laparoscopically (through several tiny incisions), depending on the surgeon’s experience and preference.
CLICK & SEE THE PICTURES
Today, the laparoscopic technique has largely supplanted the traditional open repairs which involved either a tiny circular incision around the navel or the Ramstedt procedure. Compared to the older open techniques, the complication rate is equivalent, except for a markedly lower risk of wound infection.[9] This is now considered the standard of care at the majority of Children Hospitals across the US, although some surgeons still perform the open technique. Following repair, the small 3mm incisions are hard to see.

The vertical incision, pictured and listed above, is no longer usually required. Though many incisions have been horizontal in the past years.

Once the stomach can empty into the duodenum, feeding can commence. Some vomiting may be expected during the first days after surgery as the gastro-intestinal tract settles. Very occasionally the myotomy was incomplete and projectile vomiting continues, requiring repeat surgery. But the condition generally has no long term side-effects or impact on the child’s future.

Prognosis:
Surgery usually provides complete relief of symptoms. The infant can usually tolerate small, frequent feedings several hours after surgery.

Prevention
There are no known ways of preventing pyloric stenosis, although it is possible that breastfeeding might reduce the risk.

Disclaimer: This information is not meant to be a substitute for professional medical advise or help. It is always best to consult with a Physician about serious health concerns. This information is in no way intended to diagnose or prescribe remedies.This is purely for educational purpose.

Resources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyloric_stenosis
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/pyloric-stenosis/DS00815
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000970.htm
http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/physical_health/conditions/pyloricstenosis.shtml
http://www.empowher.com/media/reference/pyloric-stenosis

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Health Problems & Solutions

Some Health Quaries & Answers

Too thin is not in

Q. I am very thin and friends poke fun at me because of this. I eat a lot, both vegetarian and non-vegetarian food, but it does not seem to help.

A: Being thin or fat is a perception. Before you decide you are underweight, calculate your BMI (body mass index). This is your weight divided by height in metre squared. The normal value is 23. If your BMI is less than this and you feel you are eating a lot, you need to consult a physician to rule out metabolic diseases such as diabetes and hyperthyroidism. If your BMI is 23 or more, maybe you only need to improve your physique with weight training and aerobic exercises like jogging.

Constipated baby
Q: My four-month-old baby is breast fed exclusively and passes stools only every three or four days. Is this normal?

A: Breast milk is almost completely digested so there can be very little solid waste to eliminate. The frequency of stools in a breast-fed infant can vary. Some do it soon after a feed. That’s because of an active “gastrocolic reflex”. In others, it may happen only once in three or four, or even seven days. Both ends of the spectrum are normal. The stool in breast-fed infants is a golden yellow in colour. If there is a sudden change in the frequency or colour, or if it contains blood, consult your paediatrician. Changes may occur in the colour, consistency and frequency of stools once you start weaning foods.

Condom use
Q: Are condoms safe for long-term use? Do they cause side effects? Is the liquid used in them safe?

A: Condoms are safe for long-term use. It’s a male contraception that must be used from the beginning to the end of intercourse. However, it has a failure rate of around 15 per cent. So if the woman misses a period, she should do a pregnancy test.

There are no side effects unless the person is allergic to latex, the substance of which condoms are made. The liquid in them is a lubricant. It may be silicone, water or a spermicidal agent.

Post menopausal bleeding


Q: I attained menopause six years ago. For the last six months, however, I had a little bleeding. It’s just a few drops, and then it stops. Do I need to take it seriously?

A: What you are describing is post menopausal bleeding. This is any kind of bleeding or spotting that may occur after you have not menstruated for a full year. It occurs in 30 per cent of women. It could be harmless, due to weight gain or hormonal changes. Or it could be due to the endometrium (lining of the uterus) suddenly and inexplicably beginning to grow (endometrial hyperplasia). This needs evaluation as it can progress to cancer. You need to consult a gynaecologist.

Aortic valve disease
Q: My father developed a peculiar chest pain brought on by climbing stairs. He was evaluated by echo and doppler studies and found to have a “calcified aortic valve”. He is 79 years old.

A: About 4 per cent of the elderly develop stenosis (narrowing) or regurgitation (leaking) of a deformed calcified aortic valve. In either case, the work of the heart, particularly the left ventricle, increases as greater effort is required to pump blood through the defective valve. Moreover, since the coronary vessels – which supply the heart muscle – arise very close to the aortic valve, it can compromise blood supply to the heart muscle. Aortic valve disease can, therefore, cause fainting or chest pain with exercise. In your father’s case, the effort involved in climbing stairs may be too much.

Surgery, either to relieve the narrowing or replace the valve, has been successful in many elderly people and considerably improved their quality of life.

Hole in the heart
Q: My son was diagnosed with a hole in his heart. A doctor cured it with medicines when he was a year old. Now he has a persistent cough. Another doctor says that’s because of the hole and that it remains.

A: About 2 to 5 per cent of children have “ventricular septral defect” at birth. In 90 per cent, the hole closes shortly after birth. If it does not and continues to remain large, surgical intervention is recommended.

Source: The Telegraph ( Kolkata, India)

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Diagnonistic Test News on Health & Science

Video-Asisted Thoracic Surgery (VATS)

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Introduction:
Video-assisted thoracic surgery (VATS) is a recently developed type of surgery that enables doctors to view the inside of the chest cavity after making only very small incisions. It allows surgeons to remove masses close to the outside edges of the lung and to test them for cancer using a much smaller surgery than doctors needed to use in the past. It is also useful for diagnosing certain pneumonia infections, diagnosing infections or tumors of the chest wall, and treating repeatedly collapsing lungs. Doctors are continuing to develop other uses for VATS.
..VATS->…  CLICK & SEE
When compared with a traditional open chest procedure, VATS has reduced the amount of chest wall trauma, deformity, and post-operative pain. While an open procedure generally requires a 30-40 cm incision, video-assisted biopsies can be performed through three 1 cm ports , and a VATS lobectomy, a resection of one lobe of the lung, is performed using a 5-8 cm incision.

How do you prepare for the test?
Discuss the specific procedures planned during your chest surgery ahead of time with your doctor. VATS is done by either a surgeon or a trained pulmonary specialist. You will need to sign a consent form giving the surgeon permission to perform this test. Talk to your doctor about whether you will stay in the hospital for any time after the procedure, so that you can plan for this.

You may need to have tests called pulmonary function tests (see page 33) before this surgery, to make sure that you can recover well.

If you are taking insulin, discuss this with your doctor before the test. If you take aspirin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, or other medicines that affect blood clotting, talk with your doctor. It may be necessary to stop or adjust the dose of these medicines before your test.

You will be told not to eat anything for at least eight hours before the surgery. An empty stomach helps prevent the nausea that can be a side effect of anesthesia medicines.

Before the surgery (sometimes on the same day), you will meet with an anesthesiologist to go over your medical history (including medicines and allergies) and to discuss the anesthesia.

What happens when the test is performed?

VATS is done in an operating room. You wear a hospital gown and have an IV (intravenous) line placed in your arm so that you can receive medicines through it.

VATS is usually done with general anesthesia, which puts you to sleep so you are unconscious during the procedure. General anesthesia is administered by an anesthesiologist, who asks you to breathe a mixture of gases through a mask. After the anesthetic takes effect, a tube is put down your throat to help you breathe. Your anesthesiologist can use this tube to make you breathe using only one of your lungs. This way the other lung can be completely deflated and allow the surgeon a full view of your chest cavity on that side during the procedure.

If VATS is being used only to evaluate a problem on the inside of the ribcage (not the lung itself), then it can sometimes be done using regional anesthesia. With regional anesthesia, you are not asleep during the surgery, but are given medicines that make you very groggy and that keep you from feeling pain in the chest. This is done with either a spinal block or an epidural block, in which an anesthesiologist injects the anesthetic through a needle or tube in your back or neck. You do your own breathing with this type of anesthesia, but one of your lungs will be partly collapsed to allow the doctors to move instruments between the lung and the chest wall.

When you meet with the thoracic surgeon, a physical exam will be performed and your treatment options will be discussed. The thoracic surgeon will discuss the benefits and potential risks of the surgical procedure that is recommended for you.

In general, preoperative tests include: (links will open in a new window)

*Blood tests
*Pulmonary function test (breathing test)
*CT scan
*Electrocardiogram

Your surgeon will determine if any additional preoperative tests are needed, based on the type of procedure that will be performed. If a cardiac (heart) evaluation is necessary, a consultation with a cardiologist will be scheduled in our internationally-renowned Miller Family Heart & Vascular Institute.

As part of your preoperative evaluation, you will meet with an anesthesiologist who will discuss anesthesia and post-operative pain control.

The thoracic surgery scheduler will schedule any additional tests and consultations that have been requested by your surgeon. In general, after your first meeting with your surgeon, all tests are scheduled on a single returning visit for your convenience.

You spend the surgery lying on your side. A very small incision (less than an inch long) is made, usually between your seventh and eighth ribs. Carbon dioxide gas is allowed to flow into your chest through this opening, while your lung on that side is made to partly or completely collapse. A tiny camera on a tube, called a thoracoscope, is then inserted through the opening. Your doctor can see the work he or she is doing by watching a video screen.

If you are having a procedure more complicated than inspection of the chest and lung, the doctor makes one or two other small incisions to allow additional instruments to reach into your chest. These additional incisions are usually made in a curving line along your lower ribcage. A wide variety of instruments are useful in VATS. These include instruments that can cut away a section of your lung and seal the hole left in your lung using small staples, instruments that can burn away scar tissue, and tools to remove small biopsy samples such as lymph nodes from your chest.

At the end of your surgery, the instruments are removed, the lung is reinflated, and all but one of the small incisions are stitched closed. For most patients, a tube (called a chest tube) is placed through the remaining opening to help drain any leaking air or fluid that collects after the surgery.

If you are having general anesthesia, it is stopped so that you can wake up within a few minutes of your VATS being finished, although you will remain drowsy for a while afterward.

How long will you stay in the hospital after thoracoscopic surgery?
The length of your hospital stay will vary, depending on the procedure that is performed. In general, patients who have thoracoscopic lung biopsies or wedge resections are able to go home the day after surgery. Patients who have a VATS lobectomy are usually able to go home 3 to 4 days after surgery.
Risk Factors:
It is easier for patients to recover from VATS compared with regular chest surgery (often called “open” surgery) because the wounds from the incisions are much smaller. You will have a small straight scar (less than an inch long) wherever the instruments were inserted. There are some potentially serious risks from VATS surgery. Air leaks from the lung that don’t heal up quickly can keep you in the hospital a longer time and occasionally require additional treatment. About 1% of patients have significant bleeding requiring a transfusion or larger operation.

Sometimes, especially if cancer is diagnosed, your doctors will decide that you need a larger surgery to treat your problem in the safest manner possible. Your doctors might discuss this option with you ahead of time. That way, if necessary, the doctors can change over to a larger incision and do open chest surgery while you are still under anesthesia. Death from complications of VATS surgery does occur in rare cases, but less frequently than with open chest surgery.

General anesthesia is safe for most patients, but it is estimated to result in major or minor complications in 3%-10% of people having surgery of all types. These complications are mostly heart and lung problems and infections.

Irritation of the diaphragm and chest wall can cause pain in the chest or shoulder for a few days. Some patients experience some nausea from medicines used for anesthesia or anxiety.

What will happen after your thoracoscopic surgery?
Your thoracic surgery team, including your surgeon, surgical residents and fellows, surgical nurse clinicians, social workers and anesthesiologist, will help you recovery as quickly as possible. During your recovery, you and your family will receive updates about your progress so you’ll know when you can go home.

Your health care team will provide specific instructions for your recovery and return to work, including guidelines for activity, driving, incision care and diet.

Most patients stay in the hospital for at least one day after a VATS procedure to recover from the surgery. Most patients have a chest tube left in the chest for a few days, to help drain out leaking air or collections of fluid. You should notify your doctor if you experience fever, shortness of breath, or chest pain.

Follow-Up Appointment: A follow-up appointment will be scheduled 7 to 10 days after your surgery. Your surgeon will assess the wound sites and your recovery at your follow-up appointment and provide guidelines about your activities and return to work.

Most people who undergo minimally invasive thoracic surgery can return to work within 3 to 4 weeks.

How long is it before the result of the test is known?
Your doctor can tell you how the surgery went as soon as it is finished. If biopsy samples were taken, these often require several days to be examined.

Resources:
https://www.health.harvard.edu/fhg/diagnostics/video-assisted-thoracic-surgery.shtml
http://www.cancernews.com/data/Article/242.asp
http://my.clevelandclinic.org/thoracic/services/video_assisted.aspx

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