Tag: Mental disorder

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Therapetic treatment

Electro-Convulsive Therapy

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Definition:
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a procedure in which electric currents are passed through the brain, deliberately triggering a brief seizure. Electroconvulsive therapy seems to cause changes in brain chemistry that can immediately reverse symptoms of certain mental illnesses. It often works when other treatments are unsuccessful.

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Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), formerly known as electroshock, is a psychiatric treatment in which seizures are electrically induced in anesthetized patients for therapeutic effect. Its mode of action is unknown. Today, ECT is most often recommended for use as a treatment for severe depression which has not responded to other treatment, and is also used in the treatment of mania and catatonia. It was first introduced in the 1938 and gained widespread use as a form of treatment in the 1940s and 1950s.

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Informed consent is a standard of modern electroconvulsive therapy. According to the Surgeon General, involuntary treatment is uncommon in the United States and is typically only used in cases of great extremity, and only when all other treatment options have been exhausted and the use of ECT is believed to be a potentially life saving treatment. However, caution must be exercised in interpreting this assertion as, in an American context, there does not appear to have been any attempt to survey at national level the usage of ECT as either an elective or involuntary procedure in almost twenty years. In one of the few jurisdictions where recent statistics on ECT usage are available, a national audit of ECT by the Scottish ECT Accreditation Network indicated that 77% of patients who received the treatment in 2008 were capable of giving informed consent

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Electroconvulsive therapy can differ in its application in three ways: electrode placement, frequency of treatments, and the electrical waveform of the stimulus. These three forms of application have significant differences in both adverse side effects and positive outcomes. After treatment, drug therapy is usually continued, and some patients receive continuation/maintenance ECT. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, drug therapy is continued during ECT.

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The treatment involves placing electrodes on the temples, on one or both sides of the patient’s head, and delivering a small electrical current across the brain, with the patient sedated or under anaesthetic. The aim is to produce a seizure lasting up to a minute, after which the brain activity should return to normal. Patients may have one or more treatment a week, and perhaps more than a dozen treatments in total.

Although ECT has been used since the 1930s, there is still no generally accepted theory to explain how it works. One of the most popular ideas is that it causes an alteration in how the brain responds to chemical signals or neurotransmitters.

Why & when it is done?
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) can provide rapid, significant improvements in severe symptoms of a number of mental health conditions. It may be an effective treatment in someone who is suicidal, for instance, or end an episode of severe mania.

ECT is used to treat:
*Severe depression, particularly when accompanied by detachment from reality (psychosis), a desire to commit suicide or refusal to eat.

*Treatment-resistant depression, long-term depression that doesn’t improve with medications or other treatments.

*Schizophrenia, particularly when accompanied by psychosis, a desire to commit suicide or hurt someone else, or refusal to eat.

*Severe mania, a state of intense euphoria, agitation or hyperactivity that occurs as part of bipolar disorder. Other signs of mania include impaired decision making, impulsive or risky behavior, substance abuse and psychosis.

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*Catatonia, characterized by lack of movement, fast or strange movements, lack of speech, and other symptoms. It’s associated with schizophrenia and some other psychiatric disorders. In some cases, catatonia is caused by a medical illness.

Electroconvulsive therapy is sometimes used as a last-resort treatment for:

#Treatment-resistant obsessive compulsive disorder, severe obsessive compulsive disorder that doesn’t improve with medications or other treatments

#Parkinson’s disease, epilepsy, and certain other conditions that cause movement problems or seizures

*Tourette syndrome that doesn’t improve with medications or other treatments

ECT may be a good treatment option when medications aren’t tolerated or other forms of therapy haven’t worked. In some cases ECT is used:

#During pregnancy, when medications can’t be taken because they might harm the developing fetus

#In older adults who can’t tolerate drug side effects

#In people who prefer ECT treatments over taking medications

#When ECT has been successful in the past

Risk factor:–
Patients are given short-acting anaesthetics, muscle relaxants and breathe pure oxygen during the short procedure in order to minimise the risks. However, although ECT is much safer than it was, there are still side effects to the treatment. The most common are headache, stiffness, confusion and temporary memory loss on awaking from the treatment – some of these can be reduced by placing electrodes only on one side of the head. Memory loss can be permanent in a few cases, and the spasms associated with the seizure can cause fractured vertebrae and tooth damage. However, the recommended use of muscle relaxant nowadays makes the latter a very rare occurrence. Patients can also experience numbness in the fingers and toes.

The death rate from ECT used to be quoted as one for every 1,000 patients, but with smaller amounts of electric current used in modern treatments, accompanied by more safety techniques, this has been reduced to as little as four or five in 100,000 patients.

Recomendations:–
A common argument against ECT is that it destroys brain cells, with experiments conducted on animals in the 1940s often cited as evidence. However, modern studies have yet to reproduce these findings in the human brain.

Some activists, however, still campaign against the widespread use of ECT in psychiatry, quoting those cases which have resulted in long-term damage or even death, whether because of the built-in chance of problems, or through errors by doctors.

Experts say that given the correct staff training, and when used for the right clinical conditions, ECT can ‘dramatically’ benefit the patient. An audit of ECT in Scotland between February 1996 and August 1999 said concerns about unacceptable side effects, effectiveness of the treatment and disproportionate use on elderly people were ‘largely without foundation’.

It said that in nearly three quarters of cases people with depressive illness showed ‘a definite improvement’ after ECT. Women were more likely to receive the treatment than men, but the auditors said this was because they were twice as likely to suffer from depression. Only 12 per cent of patients who got ECT were aged over 75. However, the Royal College of Psychiatrists has admitted that in the past the treatment has been administered by untrained, unsupervised junior doctors. However, modern guidelines have changed this and ECTAS (ECT Accreditation Services) exist to check that such treatment is being given safely and efficiently.

Guidelines on ECT from NICE (2003) recommend that it’s used only to achieve rapid and short-term improvement of severe symptoms after an adequate trial of other treatment. options has proven ineffective and/or when the condition is considered to be potentially life-threatening, in individuals with:

•Severe depressive illness
•Catatonia
•Prolonged or severe manic episode

NICE also says that ‘valid consent should be obtained in all cases where the individual has the ability to grant or refuse consent. The decision to use ECT should be made jointly by the individual and the clinician(s) responsible for treatment, on the basis of an informed discussion. This discussion should be enabled by the provision of full and appropriate information about the general risks associated with ECT and about the risks and potential benefits specific to that individual. Consent should be obtained without pressure or coercion, which may occur as a result of the circumstances and clinical setting, and the individual should be reminded of their right to withdraw consent at any point. There should be strict adherence to recognised guidelines about consent and the involvement of patient advocates and/or carers to facilitate informed discussion is strongly encouraged.’

 

Click to learn more  in detail  about  Electro-Convulsive Therapy

You may click to see:-

Keep fighting even when depression treatments don’t work
Video:Electroconvulsive therapy

DSM-IV Codes
Harold A. Sackeim
Insulin shock therapy
History of electroconvulsive therapy in the United Kingdom
Psychiatric survivors movement
Consumer/Survivor/Ex-Patient Movement
List of people who have undergone electroconvulsive therapy

 

Resources:
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/electroconvulsive-therapy/MY00129
http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/physical_health/conditions/electro_convulsive_therapy.shtml
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroconvulsive_therapy

http://www.minddisorders.com/Del-Fi/Electroconvulsive-therapy.html

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Healthy Tips

‘Green’ Exercise Quickly ‘Boosts Mental Health’

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Just five minutes of exercise in a “green space” such as a park can boost mental health, researchers claim.

There is growing evidence that combining activities such as walking or cycling with nature boosts well-being.

In the latest analysis, UK researchers looked at evidence from 1,250 people in 10 studies and found fast improvements in mood and self-esteem.

The study in the Environmental Science and Technology journal suggested the strongest impact was on young people.

The research looked at many different outdoor activities including walking, gardening, cycling, fishing, boating, horse-riding and farming in locations such as a park, garden or nature trail.

The biggest effect was seen within just five minutes.

With longer periods of time exercising in a green environment, the positive effects were clearly apparent but were of a smaller magnitude, the study found.

Looking at men and women of different ages, the researchers found the health changes – physical and mental – were particularly strong in the young and the mentally-ill.

Green and blue

A bigger effect was seen with exercise in an area that also contained water – such as a lake or river.

Study leader Jules Pretty, a researcher at the University of Essex, said those who were generally inactive, or stressed, or with mental illness would probably benefit the most from “green exercise”.

“We would like to see all doctors considering exercise as a treatment where appropriate”… says
Paul Farmer, Mind.

“Employers, for example, could encourage staff in stressful workplaces to take a short walk at lunchtime in the nearest park to improve mental health.”

He also said exercise programmes outdoors could benefit youth offenders.

“A challenge for policy makers is that policy recommendations on physical activity are easily stated but rarely adopted widely.”

Paul Farmer, chief executive of mental health charity Mind, said the research is yet further evidence that even a short period of green exercise can provide a low cost and drug-free therapy to help improve mental wellbeing.

“It’s important that people experiencing depression can be given the option of a range of treatments, and we would like to see all doctors considering exercise as a treatment where appropriate.”

Mind runs a grant scheme for local environmental projects to help people with mental illness get involved in outdoor activities.

You may click to see :->
Green spaces ‘improve health’
Green spaces ‘reduce health gap’
Tree-lined streets ‘cut asthma’
Putting a spring in your step
Urban planning needs green rethink


Source BBC NEWS: May 1st. 2010

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Ailmemts & Remedies

Binge Eating Disorder (BED)

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Definition:
Almost everyone overeats on occasion, having seconds or thirds of a holiday meal or devouring an entire bag of chips while watching a scary movie. Sometimes, though, overeating becomes a regular occurrence, shrouded in shame and secrecy. It’s called binge-eating disorder(BED), a serious eating disorder in which you frequently consume unusually large amounts of food.

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Binge eating disorder is characterized by compulsive overeating in which people consume huge amounts of food while feeling out of control and powerless to stop.Even the best of us occasionally overeats, helping ourselves to seconds, and even thirds; especially on holiday or festive celebrations. This is not a binge eating disorder. It becomes a disorder when the bingeing occurs regularly, and the binger is shrouded in shame and secrecy. The binger is deeply embarrassed about overeating and vows never to do it again. However, the compulsion is so strong that subsequent urges to gorge themselves cannot be resisted.

Binge eating disorder (BED), is the most common eating disorder in the United States affecting 3.5% of females and 2% of males and is prevalent in up to 30% of those seeking weight loss treatment, Although it is not yet classified as a separate disorder it was first described in 1959 by psychiatrist and researcher, Albert Stunkard and was first termed Night Eating Syndrome (NES), Binge Eating Disorder was coined to describe the same bingeing type eating behavior without the nocturnal component. BED usually leads to obesity although it can occur in normal weight individuals. There may be a genetic inheritance factor involved in BED independent of other obesity risks and there is also a higher incidence of psychiatric comorbidity, with the percentage of individuals with BED and an Axis I comorbid psychiatric disorder being 78.9% and for those with subclinical BED, 63.6%.
Some experts say that binge-eating disorder is the most common of all eating disorders. Estimates suggest that up to 4 percent of the U.S. population has binge-eating disorder, with girls and women slightly more likely than boys and men to develop the condition. Both children and adults can develop binge-eating disorder, but it’s most common when in your 40s and 50s.

In many parts of the world binge eating disorder is not considered a distinct condition. However, it is the most common of all eating disorders. Perhaps as more research is published and scientists learn more about it, this may change.

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Signs & Symptoms:

You may have no obvious physical signs or symptoms when you have binge-eating disorder. You may be overweight or obese, or you may be of a normal weight. In fact, most obese people don’t have binge-eating disorder.

On the other hand, when you have binge-eating disorder you often have numerous behavioral and emotional signs and symptoms. These may include:

*Periodically does not exercise control over consumption of food.Eating large amounts of food
*Eats an unusually large amount of food at one time—more than a normal person would eat in the same amount of time.
*Eats much more quickly during binge episodes than during normal eating episodes.
*Eats until physically uncomfortable and physically feels like they’re on the verge of throwing up due to the amount of food just consumed.
*Eating even when you’re full
*Eats when depressed, sad, or bored.
*Eats large amounts of food even when not really hungry.
*Usually eats alone during binge eating episodes, in order to avoid discovery of the disorder.
*Often eats alone during periods of normal eating, owing to feelings of embarrassment about food.
*Feels disgusted, depressed, or guilty after binge eating.
*Feeling that your eating behavior is out of control
*Frequently eating alone
*Hoarding food
*Hiding empty food containers
*Feeling depressed, disgusted or upset about your eating.

After a binge, you may try to diet or eat normal meals. But restricting your eating may simply lead to more binge eating, creating a vicious cycle.
Causes:
No one knows for sure what causes binge eating disorder. As many as half of all people with binge eating disorder have been depressed in the past. Whether depression causes binge eating disorder, whether binge eating disorder causes depression, or whether the two have a common cause, is not known for sure.

The trigger point can be emotion such as happiness, anger, sadness or boredom. Impulsive behavior and certain other emotional problems can be more common in people with binge eating disorder. However, many people also claim that bingeing occurs regardless of their mood.It is also unclear whether dieting and binge eating are related. Some studies show that about half of all people with binge eating disorder had binge episodes before they started to diet.

As with many mental illnesses, it’s thought that a variety of factors are at play in binge-eating disorder and may include:

*Biological. Biological vulnerability may play a role in developing binge-eating disorder. Both genes and brain chemicals may be involved. In addition, researchers are studying appetite regulation of the central nervous system for clues, along with gastrointestinal changes that might shed light on causes.

*Psychological. Psychological and emotional characteristics may also contribute to the condition. You may have low self-worth and trouble controlling impulsive behaviors, managing moods or expressing anger.

*Sociocultural. Modern Western culture often cultivates and reinforces a desire for thinness. Although most people who have binge-eating disorder are overweight, they’re acutely aware of their body shape and appearance and berate themselves after eating binges. Some people with binge-eating disorder have a history of being sexually abused.

Researchers also say that binge eating disorder is more common among competitive athletes such as swimmers or gymnasts whose body form is regularly on public display. Affected athletes in these sports tend to compare their own bodies in a negative way with those of their teammates. There is a research into how brain chemicals and metabolism affect binge eating disorder, but this study is in its early stages.
Complecations & Risk Factors:–

Complications that binge-eating disorder may cause or be associated with include:
*Depression
*Anxiety
*Panic attacks
*Substance or alcohol abuse
*Obesity
*High blood pressure
*Type 2 diabetes
*High blood cholesterol
*Gallbladder disease
*Heart disease
*Stroke
*Osteoarthritis
*Joint pain
*Muscle pain
*Gastrointestinal problems
*Headache
*Sleep apnea
Frequent consumption of large amounts of food in a short period of time usually leads to weight gain and obesity, even though sufferers can maintain a normal weight for extended periods of time due to naturally high metabolism. The most problematic health consequences of this type of eating disorder is brought on by the weight gain resulting from the bingeing episodes.

People with binge eating disorder may become ill due to a lack of proper nutrition. Bingeing episodes usually include foods that are high in sugar and/or salt, but low in healthier nutrients, and are usually very upset by their binge eating and may become depressed. Those who are obese and also have binge eating disorder are at risk for type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol levels, gallbladder disease, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.

Most people with binge eating disorder have tried to control it on their own, but have not been able to control it for very long. Some people miss work, school, or social activities to binge eat. Obese people with binge eating disorder often feel bad about themselves and may avoid social gatherings. Those who binge eat, whether obese or not, feel ashamed, are well aware of their disordered eating patterns, and try to hide their problems. Often they become so good at hiding it that even close friends and family members don’t know they binge eat.

Mental health experts are still trying to understand what factors may increase the risk of developing binge-eating disorder. The risk factors may vary from those of other eating disorders, such as anorexia or bulimia. Risk factors for binge-eating disorder may include:

*Dieting. Dieting is often a risk factor for anorexia and bulimia, but it’s not clear what role it plays in binge-eating disorder. People with binge-eating disorder have a mixed history of dieting — some have dieted to excess dating back to childhood, while others haven’t dieted. Dieting may trigger an urge to binge eat.

*Psychological issues. Certain behaviors and emotional problems are more common when you have binge-eating disorder. As with bulimia, you may act impulsively and feel a lack of control over your behavior. You may have a history of depression or substance abuse. Binge eaters may have trouble coping with anger, sadness, boredom, worry and stress.

*Sexual abuse. Some people with binge-eating disorder say they were sexually abused as children.

*Media and society. A preoccupation with body shape, weight and appearance is common when you have binge-eating disorder. Messages in the media that equate thinness with success may heighten the self-criticism that’s common in binge eating.
*Biology – the development of binge eating disorder may be linked to a person’s biological vulnerability, involving genes as well as brain chemicals. Current research is looking at how the appetite regulation of the central nervous system may affect people’s eating habits. There may also be clues in how some people’s gut functions.

*Some jobs – there is some looming evidence that a higher percentage of sportsmen, sportswomen and models have binge eating disorder compared to other people. Although some people suggest that individuals who work in catering (making and serving food) may be susceptible, further studies are required.
Diagnosis:
Binge-eating disorder is not yet officially classified as a mental disorder, and not all experts think it should be. Mental health experts hope that ongoing research will determine if binge eating is a distinct medical condition, a nonspecific type of eating disorder, or simply a cluster of symptoms.

Binge eating is similar to bulimia nervosa, another eating disorder, and some experts think it may be a form of bulimia. But unlike people with bulimia, who purge after eating, people with binge-eating disorder don’t try to rid themselves of the extra calories they consume by self-induced vomiting, overexercising or other unhealthy methods. That’s why most people with binge-eating disorder are overweight. In fact, some experts say that binge eating may be a type of obesity disorder.

In any case, when doctors suspect someone has an eating disorder, they typically run a battery of tests and exams. These can help pinpoint a diagnosis and also assess any related complications.

These exams and tests generally include:

*Physical exam. This may include such things as measuring height and weight; assessing body mass index; checking vital signs, such as heart rate, blood pressure and temperature; checking the skin; listening to the heart and lungs; and examining the abdomen.

*Laboratory tests. These may include a complete blood count (CBC), as well as more specialized blood tests to check such things as cholesterol levels, thyroid functioning, electrolytes and blood sugar, which may determine if you have metabolic syndrome.

*Psychological evaluation. A doctor or mental health professional will discuss your thoughts, feelings and eating habits with you. You may be asked about binge-eating symptoms, including when they started, how severe they are, how they affect your daily life and whether you’ve had similar issues in the past. You may also be asked to complete psychological self-assessments and questionnaires.

*Other studies. Other studies may be done to check for health consequences of binge-eating disorder, such as heart problems, gallbladder disease or sleep apnea.

Criteria for diagnosis:-
All these evaluations help doctors determine if you meet the criteria for binge-eating disorder or if you may have another eating disorder, such as bulimia. The criteria to diagnose mental health conditions are set forth in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). This manual is published by the American Psychiatric Association and is used by mental health professionals to diagnose mental conditions and by insurance companies to reimburse for treatment.

The DSM says more research is needed before determining whether binge-eating disorder is truly a unique medical condition. However, it offers some criteria for diagnosing binge-eating disorder.

DSM diagnostic criteria for binge-eating disorder include:
*Recurrent episodes of binge eating, including eating an abnormally large amount of food and feeling a lack of control over eating

*Binge eating that’s associated with at least three of these factors: eating rapidly; eating until you’re uncomfortably full; eating large amounts when you’re not hungry; eating alone out of embarrassment; or feeling disgusted, depressed or guilty after eating.

*Distress about your binge eating

*Binge eating occurs at least twice a week for at least six months

*Binge eating isn’t associated with inappropriate methods to compensate for overeating, such as self-induced vomiting

Some people may not meet all of these criteria but still have an eating disorder. As researchers learn more about eating disorders, the diagnostic criteria may evolve and change. Don’t try to diagnose yourself — get professional help if you have any eating disorder symptoms.

Treatment:-
People with binge eating disorder, whether or not they want to lose weight, should get help from health professionals including physicians, nutritionists, psychiatrists, psychologists, clinical social workers or by attending 12-step Overeaters Anonymous meetings. Even those who are not overweight are usually upset by their binge eating, and treatment can help them.

Although mental health professionals may be attuned to the signs of binge eating disorders, most physicians do not raise the question, either because they are uninformed about the condition or too embarrassed to ask about it. Because it is not a recognized psychiatric disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, it is difficult to get insurance reimbursement for treatments.

There are several different ways to treat binge eating disorder. Cognitive-behavioral therapy teaches people how to keep track of their eating and change their unhealthy eating habits. It also teaches them how to change the way they act in tough situations. Interpersonal psychotherapy helps people look at their relationships with friends and family and make changes in problem areas. Drug therapy, such as antidepressants, may be helpful for some people.

Researchers are still trying to find the treatment that is the most helpful in controlling binge eating disorder. The methods mentioned here seem to be equally helpful. For people who are overweight, a weight-loss program to improve health and to build self-esteem, as well as counselling to pinpoint the root of their psychological problems triggering their binge episodes, might be the best choice.

Prevention:
While there’s no sure way to prevent binge-eating disorder, there may be ways to help. For instance, pediatricians may be in a good position to identify early indicators of an eating disorder and help prevent its development. During routine well-child checks or medical appointments, pediatricians can ask children questions about their eating habits and satisfaction with their appearance. Parents can also cultivate and reinforce a healthy body image in their children no matter what their size or shape. Be certain not to tease or joke about a child’s size, shape or appearance.

In addition, if you notice a family member or friend with low self-esteem, severe dieting, frequent overeating, hoarding of food or dissatisfaction with appearance, consider talking to him or her about these issues. Although you may not be able to prevent binge-eating disorder or another eating disorder from developing you can talk about healthier behavior or treatment options.
Lifestyle and home remedies:
Binge-eating disorder generally isn’t an illness that you can treat on your own. But you can do some things for yourself that will build on your treatment plan. In addition to professional treatment, follow these self-care steps for binge eating:

*Stick to your treatment. Don’t skip therapy sessions. If you have meal plans, do your best to stick to them and don’t let setbacks derail your overall efforts.
*Avoid dieting. Trying to diet can trigger more binge episodes, leading to a vicious cycle that’s hard to break.
*Eat breakfast. Many people with binge-eating disorder skip breakfast. But studies show that if you eat breakfast, you’re less prone to eating higher calorie meals later in the day.
*Don’t stock up. Keep less food in your home than you normally do. That may mean more-frequent trips to the grocery store, but it may also take away the temptation and ability to binge eat.
*Get the right nutrients. Just because you may be eating a lot during binges doesn’t mean you’re eating the kinds of food that supply all of your essential nutrients. Talk to your doctor about vitamin and mineral supplements.
*Stay connected. Don’t isolate yourself from caring family members and friends who want to see you get healthy. Understand that they have your best interests at heart.
*Get active. Talk to your health care providers about what kind of exercise is appropriate for you, especially if you have health problems related to being overweight.

Regular Exercise and Routine diet is the best form of  remedy for BED

Disclaimer: This information is not meant to be a substitute for professional medical advise or help. It is always best to consult with a Physician about serious health concerns. This information is in no way intended to diagnose or prescribe remedies.This is purely for educational purpose.

Resources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binge_eating_disorder
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/binge-eating-disorder/DS00608
http://www.helpguide.org/mental/binge_eating_disorder.htm
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/173184.php

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Featured Healthy Tips

A Surprising Link Between Sugar and Mental Health

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Noted British psychiatric researcher Malcolm Peet conducted a provocative cross-cultural analysis of the relationship between diet and mental illness. His primary finding was a strong link between high sugar consumption and the risk of both depression and schizophrenia.

………………….
There are at least two potential mechanisms through which refined sugar intake could exert a toxic effect on mental health. First, sugar actually suppresses activity of a key growth hormone in the brain called BDNF. BDNF levels are critically low in both depression and schizophrenia.

Second, sugar consumption triggers a cascade of chemical reactions in your body that promote chronic inflammation. In the long term, inflammation disrupts the normal functioning of your immune system, and wreaks havoc on your brain. Once again, it’s linked to a greater risk of depression and schizophrenia.

Resources:
Psychology Today July 23, 2009
The British Journal of Psychiatry May 2004;184:404-8

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News on Health & Science

Down Memory Lane

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Scientists are unlocking the secrets to forming long-term memory. :-

The human brain is continuously swamped with sensory information from all around — in the form of new sounds, sights, smells and tastes. The inputs lead to the formation of memory, which is vital to our survival.

The volume of data received is so enormous that only a small part of it enters our short-term memory. After a while, the brain decides what is to be stored for future recall. The process by which lasting memories are created has long been an enigma for scientists. Now, however, researchers have begun to fit the pieces of this great jigsaw puzzle.

Early this month, scientists at the Karolinska Institutet in Stockholm made an advancement when they discovered a mechanism that controls the brain’s ability to create memories that last months. Their experiments on genetically modified mice showed that the animals’ ability to form lasting memories could be switched on and off by simply adding a substance to the water they drank.

The brain’s ability to convert new sensory information into lasting memories is the basis of all learning. Much is known about the first few steps of this process — that is, those that lead to memories lasting a few hours. Scientists in the past have seen that altered signalling between neurons while they process a sensory input triggers a series of chemical changes in the connections between nerve endings. These changes are known as synapses.

“A lot is known about the early electrical and chemical events that take place (in the brain) in the first few hours after a memory-causing event. Much less is known about the mechanisms that lead to lasting memories, which typically happen in the next several days,” says Lars Olson, lead author of the study that appeared recently in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

It is generally thought that lasting memories are formed by structural re-arrangements that occur in the contacts between nerve endings. The cerebral cortex, where these memories are stored, has nearly 400 trillion such contacts. The contacts may become larger or smaller, fewer or more in number, or may change positions to carry a novel memory. Once such plastic changes have occurred in the grey matter, the new memories become stored as a change in the brain circuitry. “Perhaps a bit like a firmware upgrade of a computer,” says Olson.

The Karolinska researchers have now discovered that a molecule called Nogo receptor 1 (NgR), found in nerve membrane, plays a key part in transforming short-term memories into lasting ones. Their study showed the gene that expresses this molecule has to be switched off for a sensory input to move to the realm of lasting memory.

To establish this, the Swedish researchers first created mice with an extra gene for NgR. In normal circumstances, the mice were able to switch off their own NgR gene when a learning task was given. But the extra NgR continued to remain switched on. The scientists had hypothesised that if the second NgR was working, the mice would have severely impaired abilities to form lasting memories. And they found this to be true.

The second set of experiments involved the use of an antibiotic, doxycycline, which when added to the drinking water inactivated the extra NgR. The mice which drank the water laced with doxycycline before the learning tasks were given didn’t have any difficulty in retaining their normal ability to form long-term memories.

“The study seems to be excellently designed and executed,” says Chittaranjan Andrade, professor of psychopharmacy at the National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore. “There is much research data available on NgR, but very little on its role in memory formation.”

According to Andrade, the subject is of significance because memory impairments characterise a number of neurological and psychiatric disorders such as Alzheimer’s.

The study comes close on the heels of another important one which provided glimpses into the role of sleep in the formation and consolidation of long-term memory. It has been known for more than a century that sleep is important for learning and memory. But till date, scientists haven’t been able to pinpoint the exact mechanism that makes it happen.

“I think sleep, particularly dream sleep, is an important component of memory consolidation. Recent experiences — that may be stored in a more temporary fashion — are evaluated such that some are permanently stored while others perhaps wither away,” says Olson. “However, we have not studied to which extent NgR regulation occurs specifically during sleep to allow consolidation.”

The scientists hope that their findings will help in the development of new treatments for memory impairing events such as Alzheimer’s disease, stroke and spinal cord injuries. Medicine designed to target NgR would be able to improve the brain’s ability to form long-term memories.

Source:The Telegraph (Kolkata, India)

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